The Law of Dependent Origination

The Law of Dependent Origination, or Pratītyasamutpāda in Sanskrit and Paticca-samuppada in Pali, is a core Buddhist doctrine stating that all phenomena arise in dependence on other phenomena, meaning nothing exists independently but is instead a result of interconnected causes and conditions. 

The law of dependent origination is crucial for understanding the causes of suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of rebirth, as it links ignorance and karma.

By understanding and breaking the chain of dependent origination, one can achieve liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth. 

A common presentation of dependent origination is the "Twelve Links" (or "Twelvefold Chain of Causation"), which outlines the cyclical nature of suffering and how it can be overcome. 

1. Ignorance (avidya,無明): The root cause of suffering, leading to the cycle of rebirth. 
2. Volitional Activities (sankhara,行): Actions and intentions arising from ignorance. 
3. Consciousness (vijnana,識): The mind that perceives and experiences. 
4. Name and Form (nama-rupa, 名色): The body and mind, arising from consciousness. 
5. Six Sense Bases (sadayatana, 六入): The six senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, mind). 
6. Contact (sparsa,觸,촉): The interaction between the senses and the external world. 
7. Feeling (vedana,受,수): The experience of pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral sensations. 
8. Craving (tanha,愛): Attachment and desire arising from feeling. 
9. Clinging (upadana,取,취): Holding onto things, thoughts, and experiences. 
10. Existence (bhava,有): The cycle of rebirth and becoming. 
11. Birth (jati,生): The process of being reborn. 
12. Aging, Suffering, and Death (jara-marana,老死): The inevitable end of life.

What is the law of dependent origination? It is said that ignorance leads to actions, actions lead to consciousness, consciousness leads to the name-and-form, the name-and-form leads to the-six-bases, the-six-bases leads to contact, contact leads to feeling, feeling leads to craving, craving leads to clinging, clinging leads to existence, existence leads to birth, and birth leads to aging, suffering, and death.

The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination is a sequential process of uncovering the cause of suffering, but in fact, each and every one of its parts is ultimately a condition that independently causes suffering. Therefore, if one part of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination is extinguished, the next part will be extinguished in succession, and eventually the fundamental suffering of old age, illness, and death will be extinguished.

All suffering arises from ignorance. When ignorance is completely eliminated, suffering no longer arises. All suffering arises from karma (actions). When karma is completely eliminated, suffering no longer arises. Likewise, consciousness, contact, feeling, craving, and clinging. Since all suffering arises from the cyclical relationship of the twelve links of dependent origination, the twelve links of dependent origination are also explained as a way to investigate the root of the cause, but in this way, each of the twelve links of dependent origination independently becomes a way to eliminate all suffering.

1. Ignorance (avidya,無明): The root cause of suffering, leading to the cycle of rebirth. 

Here, my learning of Chinese characters in my middle school comes in very handy. The word '無明' literally means 'no light', and its meaning is ignorance (darkness) of the truth. It is understood in the Buddhist term, more specifically as ignorance of the Four Noble Truths.

Ignorance of the Four Noble Truths means not knowing about (1) what is suffering, (2) the causes of suffering, (3) the cessation of suffering, and (4) the path leading to the cessation of suffering (the Eightfold Path). It means not understanding correctly how the original suffering of old age, illness, and death arose, what their causes are, whether they can be extinguished, and what the method is for extinguishing all of them.

What do we know for sure? If we live without knowing where we came from and where we are going, without even knowing who we are, how can we live wisely? Because we live without knowing anything about life, the universe, ourselves, the past, and the future, we cannot help but live a foolish, unwise life that will repeat the reincarnations with varying degrees of pain and suffering within three different realms of the universe.

It is easy to think that being ignorant is not a sin, but in fact, the greatest sins arise from being ignorant. We commit sins because we do not know; we commit evil deeds because we are ignorant of the causal effects of karmic consequences.

2. Volitional Activities (sankhara,行): Karma, Conditioned act (有爲,유위) and intentions arising from ignorance.

Sankhara encompasses mental activities, volitions, and karmic predispositions that shape an individual's thoughts, actions, and experiences. 

Conditioned act (有爲,유위) refers to manipulating into conditioned things by creating the identification of ‘my possession, my existence, my self’ without knowing impermanence and non-self due to ignorance and making them real. Therefore, if ignorance had not been a condition, it would not have manipulated into conditioned things, but because ignorance was created, it became manipulated into conditioned things. Conditioned things literally mean that there is something to do, and it implies that by creating manipulation and intention, one has deviated from the original, inactive and natural flow. Due to foolish ignorance, people have come to live a forcibly manipulated conditioned life, breaking away from the natural life of inactive things. It means that due to ignorance, ‘I’ and ‘the world’ are realized and become attached, and in order to make the objects of attachment ‘mine’, one generates will and intention and acts through speech, thoughts, and actions.

If you think, speak, and act harmfully, you will be born into a harmful world as a result, come into contact with harmful beings like hell and suffering. 

All actions that we perform are karmic actions, that is, conditioned actions. Actions that occur from a foolish mind, from ignorance, are all conditioned actions. On the other hand, actions that occur from original brightness/clarity (Paramita), and wisdom (Prajna) are unconditioned actions that do not leave a trace because they were done without doing anything. We perform conditioned actions because we are ignorant, that is, foolish. Even when we love someone, we create an action of attachment to make that person our own because we are foolish enough to think that the person is real. This is conditioned action. An action that involves attachment is conditioned action. It is an action that is not done without doing anything or being attached, but rather an action that involves fabricating, creating, and doing something. The mind (thoughts), words/speech, and actions that try to make her my woman or my man no matter what happens are conditioned actions.

Therefore, Buddhism teaches that by extinguishing actions, all suffering is extinguished. This does not mean that no actions are performed. It means that actions are performed without doing conditioned acts, and without attachment. When actions are extinguished, all conditioned actions are transformed into unconditioned actions, so no actions are performed, and there is no trace. This is the Buddha's actions.

Simply put, there is no after-effect to the Buddha’s actions. Even if a disciple does something wrong and is reprimanded, the Buddha acts without doing anything at all, because he acts with non-action, so there is no trace of reprimanding left behind. The next moment, the disciple stands before the Buddha not as a “reprimanded disciple,” but as just a pure and empty “disciple.”

3. Consciousness (vijnana,識): The mind that perceives and experiences.

Consciousness is a cognitive function and there are six types of consciousness: eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, and mind consciousness. This means that perception arises according to seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and thinking through the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind, respectively.

The cessation of consciousness means changing discrimination into non-discrimination. We always perceive objects by discrimination, but we can also perceive them as they are without discrimination or judgment. When we see someone, we tend to perceive them as bad or good by recalling their past actions, but if we are wise and awake, we will let go of past actions because they are already in the past and perceive them as just an empty person, not a good or bad person at this moment. This is non-discrimination. In other words, if we extinguish consciousness, we may think that we will not be able to recognize or perceive objects at all, but that is not the case. We will go beyond the habitual discrimination that we constantly discriminate and perceive them as non-discrimination. Non-discrimination is the great egalitarian mind. There is no good or bad object, no good or bad, no right or wrong, no good or bad, no dirty or clean, and with the great egalitarian mind, we will see all beings as they are, with an empty and clear gaze. When such non-discriminating perception is achieved, all suffering can be extinguished.

That is why the Third Patriarch of Chinese Zen, Seungchan, said, "The ultimate way is not difficult. Just do not choose. If you do not hate or love, it will become completely clear." The ultimate way is not difficult. In other words, if you just put down the choice, that is, the mind that discriminates and discriminates, that is, the mind that likes and dislikes, it will become completely clear. This teaching is that the mind of non-discrimination, that is, the cessation of consciousness, is the way to enlightenment. In this way, the cessation of consciousness, that is, the transition from the mind of discrimination to the mind of non-discrimination, is the great transition of consciousness from the consciousness of a living being to the consciousness of the Buddha.

Let's examine this from the perspective of the interpretation of karma-dependent origination in Theravada Buddhism. Earlier, it was said that we receive a body in this life due to ignorance and actions in the past life. In this way, when a body is formed by our actions, consciousness arises there. When a body is formed, we create the image of 'I am' there, and therefore, due to the thought of 'I am', the cognitive function of discernment arises there.

According to the theory of karma-dependent arising in Theravada Buddhism, as soon as a human being receives a body in this life, six organs [six faculties] are created in the human body due to their karma, and each of these organs has its own discernment [six consciousnesses]. In this way, the six consciousnesses of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and consciousness are created. Then, in order for these six consciousnesses to be established, our body must have sense organs that can perceive and objects that can perceive. These are the six faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, and the six realms of color, sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharma, and these are expressed by the fourth of the twelve links of dependent arising, name-and-form [six faculties], and the fifth, the six bases [six bases]. 

The important thing here is that consciousness, name-and-form, and six bases are not created separately, but must exist simultaneously. In other words, these three items are simultaneous, not temporally sequential.

4. Name and Form (nama-rupa, 名色): The body and mind, arising from consciousness.

In Buddhist term, "namarupa" refers to the interconnectedness of "name" (nama) and "form" (rupa), representing the mind-body duality or the psycho-physical aggregates that form the basis of individual existence. 

5. Six Sense Bases (sadayatana, 六入): The six senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, mind). 

The six sense bases or the six cognitive functions which are sight, hearing, smelling, tasting, body-sensing, and brain-cognition. 

The six sense bases are: 

1. Eye and seeing 
2. Ear and hearing 
3. Nose and smelling 
4. Tongue and tasting 
5. Body and sensing 
6. Brain and cognizing 

6. Contact (sparsa,觸,촉): The interaction between the senses and the external world.

Contact, where sensory organs, objects, and consciousness converge, resulting in sensation. This interaction illustrates the interconnectedness of perception and experience in the Buddhist understanding of reality.

7. Feeling (vedana,受,수): The experience of pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral sensations. 

Vedana refers to the sensation or feeling that arises from contact with external objects or internal experiences, encompassing pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral feelings. 

Vedanā, a Sanskrit and Pali word, translates to "feeling" or "sensation". It's a key concept in Buddhist philosophy and practice, particularly within the context of the four noble truths and the path to liberation. 

Vedanā can be categorized as:

Pleasant (sukha): Feelings of comfort, joy, and satisfaction. 

Unpleasant (dukkha): Feelings of pain, discomfort, and suffering. 

Neutral (asukha-asukha): Feelings that are neither pleasant nor unpleasant, such as a state of equanimity or indifference. 

Vedanā is considered a fundamental aspect of human experience, arising from the interaction between our senses and the world around us. 

It's one of the five aggregates (or khandhas) that make up an individual's mental and physical existence, along with form (rūpa), perception (saññā), mental formations (saṃskāras), and consciousness (vijñāna/viññāṇa). 

Vedanā is seen as a catalyst for craving (tanha) and aversion, which in turn lead to suffering (dukkha). By understanding and cultivating mindfulness of vedanā, practitioners can learn to detach from the emotional reactivity that arises from these sensations, ultimately leading to greater equanimity and freedom from suffering. 

By recognizing the impermanent and conditioned nature of vedanā, practitioners can reduce their attachment to pleasant feelings and their aversion to unpleasant ones. 

8. Craving (tanha,愛): Attachment and desire arising from feeling. 

Tanha refers to craving, desire, or attachment, which is seen as the root cause of suffering and the cycle of rebirth. "Tanha" literally means "thirst" in Pali, a language used in Buddhist scriptures, and is commonly translated as craving or desire. 

Buddhism identifies tanha as the primary cause of suffering (dukkha) and the perpetuation of the cycle of rebirth (samsara). 

Types of Tanha:

Kama-tanha: Craving for sensual pleasures. 

Bhava-tanha: Craving for existence and attachment to a fixed identity. 

Vibhava-tanha: Craving for non-existence or to avoid pain and suffering. 

The eradication of tanha is seen as essential for achieving liberation (Nirvana). The Buddha taught that craving is the cause of suffering, and by understanding and overcoming craving, individuals can find peace and liberation. 

9. Clinging (upadana,取,취): Holding onto things, thoughts, and experiences. 

In Buddhism, "upādāna" translates to "clinging," "attachment," or "grasping," and is considered a primary cause of suffering (dukkha), as it fuels the cycle of rebirth and suffering. 

Upādāna, while literally meaning "fuel," is often understood as the tendency of the mind to cling to things, experiences, or ideas, preventing liberation. 

Upādāna is the ninth link in the twelve-link chain of dependent origination, which illustrates how suffering arises and how it can be ended. It follows craving (tanha) and precedes becoming (bhava). 

Types of Upādāna:

Kāmupādāna: Clinging to sensual pleasures. 

Ditthupādāna: Clinging to views or beliefs. 

Silabbatupādāna: Clinging to rules and rituals. 

Attavādupādāna: Clinging to the idea of a self or ego. 

Understanding and overcoming upādāna is crucial for spiritual practice and achieving liberation from suffering. By letting go of clinging, one can break free from the cycle of rebirth and attain enlightenment. 

10, Existence (bhava,有): The cycle of rebirth and becoming.

Bhava signifies "becoming," "existence," or "the process of existence," particularly in the context of the cycle of rebirths and the influence of karma, craving, and attachment. 

"Bhava" translates to "being," "worldly existence," "becoming," "birth," "production," or "origin". 

Bhava is also a key concept in the chain of dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda), where it represents the "becoming" that leads to birth. 

Bhava is seen as being influenced by karma, craving, and attachment, which propel beings through the cycle of birth and death. 

Bhava can refer to the potential for existence in one of the 31 realms, or to specific states of mind within a current life. 

Examples:

Human bhava, animal bhava, deva bhava, peta bhava, etc. 

Rebirth:

A new bhava will be grasped at the end of the current bhava based on the relative energies of various bhava (kamma bīja) cultivated in one's past. 

Two Types of Bhava:

Kamma bhava: The active functioning of a life in relation to the fruitional, or resultant, way of the next life. 

Upapatti bhava: The resultant way of the next life. 

Bhava and Jāti:

Bhava and jāti (birth) are related but different concepts. There can be many jāti (births) within a upapatti bhava. 

11. Birth (jati,生): The process of being reborn. 

Jāti signifies the arising of a new living entity within the cycle of existence (saṃsāra) and is understood as a root cause of suffering. 

Jāti refers to the act of being born, rebirth, or the arising of a new physical or mental experience. 

Root of Suffering: Jāti is recognized as a key aspect of dukkha (suffering) within the teachings on the Four Noble Truths. 

It's the eleventh link in the twelve links of dependent origination, illustrating how birth is a consequence of prior causes and conditions. 

Jāti highlights the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra) that Buddhists aim to transcend. Jati is a key concept in understanding the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth, which is the idea that beings are reborn into new lives based on their actions and karmic tendencies. 

12. Aging, Suffering, and Death (jara-marana,老死): The inevitable end of life.

Jarāmaraṇa (Sanskrit and Pali for "old age and death") signifies the inevitable decay and death-related suffering that all beings experience before rebirth, highlighting the cyclical nature of existence (saṃsāra). 

"Jarāmaraṇa" is a compound term combining "jarā" (old age) and "maraṇa" (death). 

It is a key concept in Buddhism, particularly within the context of the twelve factors of conditional origination (pratītyasamutpāda). 

Wisdom Library says, "Jaramarana" represents the last of the twelve factors, emphasizing the suffering inherent in the cycle of birth, aging, sickness, and death, and the inevitability of these experiences. 

The concept of "jarāmaraṇa" is closely linked to the Buddhist understanding of rebirth and the cycle of saṃsāra, where beings are continually reborn into suffering until they achieve enlightenment and liberation. 

The Buddha uses "jarāmaraṇa" to illustrate the inevitability of old age and death for all beings, regardless of their social status or achievements. 

Articles, Glossories, Links

https://www.learnreligions.com/life-is-suffering-what-does-that-mean-450094

https://www.learnreligions.com/skandha-definition-449692

https://www.learnreligions.com/anatman-anatta-449669

https://www.learnreligions.com/the-four-noble-truths-450095

The Essence of the Heart Sutra

https://www.learnreligions.com/the-heart-sutra-450023

The Essence of the Heart Sutra

By Barbara O'Brien

Updated on June 25, 2019

The Heart Sutra (in Sanskrit, Prajnaparamita Hrdaya), possibly the best known text of Mahayana Buddhism, is said to be the pure distillation of wisdom (prajna). The Heart Sutra is also among the shortest of sutras. An English translation can easily be printed on one side of a piece of paper.

The teachings of the Heart Sutra are deep and subtle, and we do not pretend to completely understand them. This article is a mere introduction to the sutra for the completely baffled.

Origins of the Heart Sutra

The Heart Sutra is part of the much larger Prajnaparamita (perfection of wisdom) Sutra, which is a collection of about 40 sutras composed between 100 BCE and 500 CE. The precise origin of the Heart Sutra is unknown. According to the translator Red Pine, the earliest record of the sutra is a Chinese translation from Sanskrit by the monk Chih-ch'ien made between 200 and 250 CE.

In the 8th century, another translation emerged that added an introduction and conclusion. This longer version was adopted by Tibetan Buddhism. In Zen and other Mahayana schools that originated in China, the shorter version is more common.

The Perfection of Wisdom

As with most Buddhist scriptures, simply "believing in" what the Heart Sutra says is not its point. It is important also to appreciate that the sutra cannot be grasped by intellect alone. Although analysis is helpful, people also keep the words in their hearts so that understanding unfolds through practice.

In this sutra, Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva is speaking to Shariputra, who was an important disciple of the historical Buddha. The early lines of the sutra discuss the five skandhas -- form, sensation, conception, discrimination, and consciousness. The bodhisattva has seen that the skandhas are empty and thus has been freed from suffering. The bodhisattva speaks:

Shariputra, form is no other than emptiness; emptiness no other than form. Form is exactly emptiness; emptiness exactly form. Sensation, conception, discrimination, and consciousness are also like this.

What Is Emptiness?

Emptiness (in Sanskrit, shunyata) is a foundational doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism. It is also possibly the most misunderstood doctrine in all of Buddhism. Too often, people assume it means that nothing exists. But this is not the case.

His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama said, "The existence of things and events is not in dispute; it is the manner in which they exist that must be clarified." Put another way, things and events have no intrinsic existence and no individual identity except in our thoughts.

The Dalai Lama also teaches that "existence can only be understood in terms of dependent origination." Dependent origination is a teaching that no being or thing exists independently of other beings or things.

In the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha taught that our distresses ultimately spring from thinking ourselves to be independently existing beings with an intrinsic "self." Thoroughly perceiving that this intrinsic self is a delusion liberates us from suffering.

All Phenomena Are Empty

The Heart Sutra continues, with Avalokiteshvara explaining that all phenomena are expressions of emptiness or empty of inherent characteristics. Because phenomena are empty of inherent characteristics, they are neither born nor destroyed; neither pure nor defiled; neither coming nor going.

Avalokiteshvara then begins a recitation of negations -- "no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind; no color, sound, smell, taste, touch, thing," etc. These are the six sense organs and their corresponding objects from the doctrine of the skandhas.

What is the bodhisattva saying here? Red Pine writes that because all phenomena exist interdependently with other phenomena, all distinctions we make are arbitrary.

"There is no point at which the eyes begin or end, either in time or in space or conceptually. The eye bone is connected to the face bone, and the face bone is connected to the head bone, and the head bone is connected to the neck bone, and so it goes down to the toe bone, the floor bone, the earth bone, the worm bone, the dreaming butterfly bone. Thus, what we call our eyes are so many bubbles in a sea of foam."

The Two Truths

Another doctrine associated with the Heart Sutra is that of the Two Truths. Existence can be understood as both ultimate and conventional (or, absolute and relative). Conventional truth is how we usually see the world, a place full of diverse and distinctive things and beings. The ultimate truth is that there are no distinctive things or beings.

The important point to remember with the two truths is that they are two truths, not one truth and one lie. Thus, there are eyes. Thus, there are no eyes. People sometimes fall into the habit of thinking that the conventional truth is "false," but that's not correct.

No Attainment

Avalokiteshvara goes on to say there is no path, no wisdom, and no attainment. Referring to the Three Marks of Existence, Red Pine writes, "The liberation of all beings revolves around the liberation of the bodhisattva from the concept of being." Because no individual being comes into existence, neither does a being cease to exist.

Because there is no cessation, there is no impermanence, and because there is no impermanence, there is no suffering. Because there is no suffering, there is no path to liberation from suffering, no wisdom, and no attainment of wisdom. Thoroughly perceiving this is "supreme perfect enlightenment," the bodhisattva tells us.

Conclusion

The last words in the shorter version of the sutra are "Gate Gate Paragate Parasamgate Bodhi Svaha!" The basic translation, as I understand it, is "gone (or ferried) with everyone to the other shore right now!"

Thorough understanding of the sutra requires working face-to-face with a real dharma teacher. However, if you want to read more about the sutra, these two books are particularly helpful:

Red Pine, (Counterpoint Press, 2004). An insightful line-by-line discussion.

His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, (Wisdom Publications, 2005). Compiled from heart wisdom talks given by His Holiness.

O'Brien, Barbara. "The Essence of the Heart Sutra." Learn Religions, Apr. 5, 2023, learnreligions.com/the-heart-sutra-450023.

The Prajnaparamita Sutras

The wisdom literature of Mahayana Buddhism

By Barbara O'Brien

Updated on June 25, 2019

The Prajnaparamita Sutras are among the oldest of the Mahayana Sutras and are the foundation of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. These venerable texts are found in both the Chinese Canon and Tibetan Canon of Buddhist scriptures.

Prajnaparamita means "perfection of wisdom," and the sutras counted as Prajnaparamita Sutras present the perfection of wisdom as the realization or direct experience of sunyata (emptiness).

The several sutras of the Prajnaparamita Sutras vary from very long to very short and are often named according to the number of lines it takes to write them. So, one is the Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines. Another is the Perfection of Wisdom in 20,000 Lines, and then 8,000 lines, and so on. The longest is the Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra, composed of 100,000 lines. The most well known of the wisdom sutras are the Diamond Sutra (also called "The Perfection of Wisdom in 300 Lines" and the Heart Sutra.

Origin of the Prajnaparamita Sutras

Mahayana Buddhist legend says that the Prajnaparamita Sutras were dictated by the historical Buddha to various disciples. But because the world was not ready for them, they were hidden until Nagarjuna (ca. 2nd century) discovered them in an underwater cave guarded by nagas. The "discovery" of the Prajnaparamita Sutras is considered the second of the Three Turnings of the Dharama Wheel.

However, scholars believe the oldest of the Prajnaparamita Sutras were written about 100 BCE, and some may date to as late as the 5th century CE. For the most part, the oldest surviving versions of these texts are Chinese translations that date from the early first millennium CE.

It is often taught within Buddhism that the longer Prajnaparamita sutras are the older ones, and the much briefer Diamond and Heart sutras were distilled from the longer texts. For some time historical scholars partly supported a "distillation" view, although recently this view has been challenged.

The Perfection of Wisdom 

It has been thought the oldest of the wisdom sutras is the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra, also called The Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines. A partial manuscript of the Astasahasrika was discovered that was radiocarbon dated to 75 CE, which speaks to its antiquity. And it was thought the Heart and Diamond sutras were composed between 300 and 500 CE, although more recent scholarship places the composition of the Heart and Diamond in the 2nd century CE. These dates are mostly based on the dates of translations and when citations of these sutras appeared in Buddhist scholarship.

However, there is another school of thought that the Diamond Sutra is older than the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra. This is based on an analysis of contents of the two sutras. The Diamond seems to reflect an oral recitation tradition and describes the disciple Subhuti receiving teachings from the Buddha. Subhuti is the teacher in the Astasahasrika, however, and the text reflects a written, more literary tradition. Plus, some doctrines appear to be more developed in the Astasahasrika.

Unknown Authors 

Bottom line, it's not settled exactly when these sutras were written, and the authors themselves are unknown. And while it was assumed for a long time they originally were written in India, more recent scholarship suggests that some of them may have originated in Gandhara. There is evidence an early school of Buddhism called Mahasanghika, a forerunner of Mahayana, possessed early versions of some of these sutras and may have developed them. But others may have originated with the Sthaviravadin school, a forerunner of today's Theravada Buddhism.

Barring some invaluable archaeological discovery, the precise origins of the Prajnaparamita Sutras may never be known.

Significance of the Prajnaparamita Sutras

Nagarjuna, who is the founder of a school of philosophy called Madhyamika is clearly developed from the Prajnaparamita Sutras and might be understood as the Buddha's doctrine of anatta or anatman, "no self," taken to an unavoidable conclusion.

In brief: all phenomena and beings are empty of self-nature and inter-exist, they are neither one nor many, neither individual nor indistinguishable. Because phenomena are empty of inherent characteristics, they are neither born nor destroyed; neither pure nor defiled; neither coming nor going. Because of all beings inter-exist, we are not truly separate from each other. Truly realizing this is enlightenment and liberation from suffering.

Today the Prajnaparamita Sutras remain a visible part of Zen, much of Tibetan Buddhism, and other Mahayana schools. 

O'Brien, Barbara. "The Prajnaparamita Sutras." Learn Religions, Feb. 8, 2021, learnreligions.com/the-prajnaparamita-sutras-450029.

Five Skandha

The First Skandha: Form (Rupa)

Rupa is form or matter; something material that can be sensed, touched, or seen. In early Buddhist literature, rupa includes the Four Great Elements (solidity, fluidity, heat, and motion) and their derivatives. These derivatives are the first five faculties listed above (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) and the first five corresponding objects (visible form, sound, odor, taste, tangible things).

Another way to understand rupa is to think of it as something that resists the probing of the senses. For example, an object has a form if it blocks your vision -- you can't see what's on the other side of it -- or if it blocks your hand from occupying its space.

The Second Skandha: Sensation (Vedana)

Vedana is a physical or mental sensation that we experience through contact of the six faculties with the external world. In other words, it is the sensation experienced through the contact of eye with visible form, the ear with sound, nose with odor, tongue with taste, body with tangible things, mind (manas) with ideas or thoughts.

It is particularly important to understand that manas -- mind or intellect -- is a sense organ or faculty, just like an eye or an ear. We tend to think that mind is something like a spirit or soul, but that concept is very out of place in Buddhism.

Because vedana is the experience of pleasure or pain, it conditions craving, either to acquire something pleasurable or avoid something painful.

The Third Skandha: Perception (Samjna, or in Pali, Sanna)

Samjna is the faculty that recognizes. Most of what we call thinking fits into the aggregate of samjna.

The word "samjna" means "knowledge that puts together." It is the capacity to conceptualize and recognize things by associating them with other things. For example, we recognize shoes as shoes because we associate them with our previous experience with shoes.

When we see something for the first time, we invariably flip through our mental index cards to find categories we can associate with the new object. It's a "some kind of tool with a red handle," for example, putting the new thing in the categories "tool" and "red."

Or, we might associate an object with its context. We recognize an apparatus as an exercise machine because we see it at the gym.

The Fourth Skandha: Mental Formation (Samskara, or in Pali, Sankhara)

All volitional actions, good and bad, are included in the aggregate of mental formations, or samskara. How are actions "mental" formations?

Remember the first lines of the Dhammapada (Acharya Buddharakkhita translation):

Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.

Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts happiness follows him like his never-departing shadow.

The aggregate of mental formations is associated with karma because volitional acts create karma. Samskara also contains latent karma that conditions our attitudes and predilections. Biases and prejudices belong to this skandha, as do interests and attractions.

The Fifth Skandha: Consciousness (Vijnana, or in Pali, Vinnana)

Vijnana is a reaction that has one of the six faculties as its basis and one of the six corresponding phenomena as its object.

For example, aural consciousness -- hearing -- has the ear as its basis and a sound as its object. Mental consciousness has the mind (manas) as its basis and an idea or thought as its object.

It is important to understand that this awareness or consciousness depends on the other skandhas and does not exist independently from them. It is awareness but not a recognition, as recognition is a function of the third skandha. This awareness is not a sensation, which is the second skandha.

For most of us, this is a different way to think about "consciousness."

Why Is This Important?

The Buddha wove his explanation of the skandhas into many of his teachings. The most important point he made is that the skandhas are not "you." They are temporary, conditioned phenomena. They are empty of a soul or permanent essence of self.

In several sermons recorded in the Sutta-pitaka, the Buddha taught that clinging to these aggregates as "me" is an illusion. When we realize these aggregates are just temporary phenomena and not-me, we are on the path to enlightenment.